Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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Friday Academic Review Tome: The Japanisation of Karate?: Placing an Intangible Cultural Practice.5/17/2024 This week I offer an paper with which I would take some exception to regarding assertions and conclusions. Nevertheless, it does, IMHO prove a framework aroudn which purposeful discourse could take place and one, so often missing in "fan-boy articles on book son the subject. Bibliographic Information Johnson, Noah C.G. "The Japanisation of Karate?: Placing an Intangible Cultural Practice." Journal of Contemporary Anthropology*, vol. 3, no. 1, 2012, pp. 62-78. ISSN 2150-3311. Detailed Synopsis Noah C.G. Johnson's article, "The Japanisation of Karate?: Placing an Intangible Cultural Practice," explores the cultural transformation of karate as it transitioned from Okinawa to mainland Japan. Johnson, a PhD candidate in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Iowa, examines how this martial art, deeply rooted in Okinawan culture, was adapted and integrated into Japanese society. The article delves into the historical, cultural, and social factors that influenced this transformation, highlighting the negotiation between Okinawan and Japanese cultural elements. Introduction Johnson begins by contextualising Okinawa's unique cultural identity, influenced by Chinese, Japanese, and American dominations. Karate, originating in Okinawa, reflects a blend of these cultural influences. The practice of karate, initially known as "te" or "hand," evolved through cultural exchanges with China and Japan, forming a distinct martial art by the early 20th century. This article investigates the modifications karate underwent as it was introduced to mainland Japan and how these changes reflect broader cultural dynamics. Historical Context and Origins The origins of karate are traced back to the Ryukyu Kingdom, where it developed from indigenous fighting techniques and influences from China and Japan. Johnson notes, "Karate is a creole of practices that were combined together on the island of Okinawa" (p. 64). This blending of practices resulted from Okinawa's strategic position between China and Japan and its extensive trade networks. The early 20th century marked the introduction of karate to mainland Japan, where it became perceived as a Japanese martial art. Johnson outlines the contested nature of karate's identity among practitioners, who variously describe it as Okinawan, Japanese, or a Japanese art with Okinawan origins. Cultural Translation and Modification Johnson explores the cultural translation of karate from Okinawa to Japan, emphasising the modifications necessary for its acceptance. He explains that karate had to shift from its Okinawan cultural context to align with Japanese traditions. This process involved incorporating elements from the Japanese martial tradition and reducing cultural differences between Okinawan and Japanese practices. The Japanese government's role in promoting a homogeneous national identity included assimilating Okinawan cultural practices like karate. Johnson asserts, "The active agency of both parties reveals that this interaction was a negotiation between the samurai core-subculture of Japan and the karate practitioners of Okinawa" (p. 62). Negotiation and Agency The article highlights the agency of Okinawan karate masters in adapting their art to fit Japanese cultural norms. Figures like Funakoshi Gichin played pivotal roles in modifying karate, introducing standardised techniques, uniforms, and ranking systems. These changes facilitated karate's integration into Japanese educational institutions and its recognition as a legitimate martial art. Johnson underscores the dynamic nature of this cultural negotiation, stating, "This process was not merely the appropriation of a cultural tradition by an invading and dominating foreign presence in the form of the Japanese government" (p. 63). Instead, it involved active participation and adaptation by Okinawan practitioners. Structural and Procedural Differences Johnson examines the structural and procedural differences between Okinawan and Japanese martial arts practices. In Okinawa, karate was taught informally, with no ranking system or standardised uniforms. In contrast, Japanese martial arts were highly structured, with formalised training methods and hierarchical ranking systems. These differences posed challenges for karate's acceptance in Japan. Johnson notes, "The individualism [of Okinawan karate] was alien to the Japanese concept of wa (harmony)" (p. 66). The adaptation of karate to fit Japanese norms required significant changes in its teaching methods and organisational structure. Cultural Framing and Symbolism The article delves into the symbolic and cultural framing of karate within Japanese society. Johnson argues that karate's acceptance in Japan involved not only procedural changes but also shifts in cultural symbolism. The adoption of uniforms, formalised training, and the introduction of Japanese philosophical concepts helped align karate with Japanese martial traditions. Johnson discusses the importance of cultural framing, stating, "An intangible cultural item like karate is not created by a certain culture (in this case the Okinawans) out of whole cloth, but is rather drawn from sources both in that culture's history and in the exposure that particular culture has to other ways of doing" (p. 65). Impact of Modernisation The modernisation of Japan during the Meiji Restoration influenced the transformation of karate. The incorporation of standardised curricula, ranking systems, and uniforms mirrored broader societal changes aimed at industrialisation and modernisation. Johnson notes that these changes were not unique to karate but were part of a larger trend affecting various aspects of Japanese culture. Closing Thoughts. Johnson concludes that the process of karate's integration into Japanese society was a complex negotiation rather than a simple assimilation. This negotiation involved structural influences, individual agency, and cultural adaptation. The successful incorporation of karate into Japanese culture highlights the dynamic nature of cultural practices and their ability to evolve and adapt to new contexts. The article raises important questions about the identity of cultural practices and their relationship to their origins. Johnson suggests that karate, while rooted in Okinawan culture, has become a practice that interacts with and adapts to different cultural settings. This ongoing negotiation shapes karate's identity and its place within various cultural contexts. Direct Quotes from the Author. 1. "Karate is a creole of practices that were combined together on the island of Okinawa" (p. 64). 2. "The active agency of both parties reveals that this interaction was a negotiation between the samurai core-subculture of Japan and the karate practitioners of Okinawa" (p. 62). 3. "This process was not merely the appropriation of a cultural tradition by an invading and dominating foreign presence in the form of the Japanese government" (p. 63). 4. "The individualism [of Okinawan karate] was alien to the Japanese concept of wa (harmony)" (p. 66). 5. "An intangible cultural item like karate is not created by a certain culture (in this case the Okinawans) out of whole cloth, but is rather drawn from sources both in that culture's history and in the exposure that particular culture has to other ways of doing" (p. 65). In summary, Johnson's article provides a comprehensive analysis of the cultural transformation of karate from its Okinawan origins to its integration into Japanese society. The negotiation between Okinawan and Japanese cultural elements, influenced by historical, social, and structural factors, highlights the dynamic nature of cultural practices and their ability to adapt and evolve. Recently in a chat with a fellow karate-ka from Canada he asked me about Ki and Ying/Yang theory so in coming posts I will try to explain as best I can, at least from a karate/kobudo, perspective what each of thee terms actually mean and how they relate to the 'functioning' on Okinawa based budo. However, rest assured this will not be the place for weird whwoww/magic stuff of empty hand knock outs - I will leave that to others far more qualified than I to extol upon. First up, a quick overview of the history and key figures in these terms. PLEAE NOTE: I am not an expert on these matters - I am simply passing along a generalist historical overview and some personal thoughts. Oh people who talk about 'no touch knock out' to 'Chi balls' are usually talking from their neither regions or have access to nuclear or sonic weapons. Exploring the Concepts of "Ki" (気) and Yin-Yang (陰陽) in Chinese and Japanese Traditions In the realms of Chinese and Japanese philosophy, the concepts of "ki" (気) and Yin-Yang (陰陽) play pivotal roles in understanding the nature of existence and the dynamics of energy. These concepts have deep historical roots and have evolved uniquely within their cultural contexts. Let’s delve into their origins, development, and the key figures associated with these ideas. The Concept of Ki (気) Chinese Qi (气)
Historical Origin: The concept of ki was introduced to Japan through the influence of Chinese philosophy and Buddhism during the Asuka period (538–710 CE). It became integrated into Japanese culture and spiritual practices. Key Figures:
The Concept of Yin-Yang (陰陽) Chinese Yin-Yang (陰陽):
Japanese In-Yo (陰陽): Historical Origin: The concept of In-Yo was introduced to Japan during the early influences of Chinese culture and philosophy in the Kofun period (250–538 CE) and the subsequent Asuka period. Key Figures:
Comparing and Contrasting Ki and Yin-Yang (陰陽). Similarities: 1. Energy and Balance: Both ki (気) and Yin-Yang (陰陽) emphasise the importance of energy and balance. Ki focuses on the flow and cultivation of life force, while Yin-Yang highlights the dynamic interplay between opposing forces to achieve harmony. 2. Health and Well-being: In traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine, maintaining a balanced flow of ki and a harmonious relationship between Yin and Yang is essential for physical and mental health. Differences: 1. Focus and Scope: Ki (気) is primarily concerned with the vital energy (I wiuld call it a harmony of "energy" - but I will explore more deeply later) within living beings and the environment, focusing on its cultivation and control. In contrast, Yin-Yang (陰陽) encompasses a broader philosophical framework, explaining the fundamental nature of the universe and the dualistic forces that govern it. 2. Cultural Adaptations: While ki (気) and Yin-Yang (陰陽) share Chinese origins, their interpretations and applications have adapted to fit the cultural contexts of Japan and China. Japanese practices often integrate these concepts in ways that reflect indigenous beliefs and aesthetics. Conclusion Understanding the concepts of ki (気) and Yin-Yang (陰陽) offers valuable insights into the philosophical and cultural traditions of China and Japan. Both concepts underscore the importance of energy, balance, and harmony in various aspects of life, from health and martial arts to spirituality and daily living. By appreciating their historical roots and traditional meanings, we can gain a deeper respect for the wisdom embedded in these ancient philosophies and their continued relevance in modern times. Eisai (栄西), known as Yosai (養斎) in Japanese contexts, is a pivotal figure in the annals of Japanese history, celebrated for introducing the Rinzai (臨済) school of Zen Buddhism (禅) to Japan. His influence extends across religious, cultural, and martial disciplines, establishing him as a key figure in shaping Japan's spiritual and cultural landscape.
Sadly, when his ideas are often referenced few, outside of Japan, know of his existence outide of a small group of academics and practitioners. In a small effort to correct for this I offer below a snap shot of this incdedible life! Early Years and Enlightenment in China Born in 1141 in Bitchū Province (備中国), now part of modern-day Okayama Prefecture (岡山県), Eisai was drawn to Buddhism (仏教) from a tender age. His initial monastic training was under the Tendai (天台) school, a major Buddhist sect in Japan at that time. However, driven by a thirst for deeper knowledge, Eisai travelled to China (中国), the epicentre of Buddhist learning during the Southern Song dynasty (南宋). His first pilgrimage in 1168 marked the beginning of a profound spiritual journey. Unfulfilled by his initial studies, he ventured again to China in 1187, where he encountered the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. Under the tutelage of several Zen masters, he immersed himself in the rigorous Zen practices and teachings. Introduction of Rinzai Zen to Japan Upon his return to Japan (日本) in 1191, Eisai brought with him not only new religious insights but also tea seeds (茶の種), which he planted in Kyoto (京都). This act is often credited with initiating tea cultivation in Japan, which later evolved into the ceremonial tea culture (茶道). In 1202, he founded Kennin-ji (建仁寺), the first Zen temple in Japan, in Kyoto. This temple became the cornerstone of Zen practice in Japan, integrating Eisai’s Chinese Zen influences with the existing Japanese Buddhist practices. Zen Thought and Cultural Synthesis Eisai’s introduction of Rinzai Zen had a transformative impact on Japanese Buddhism. He actively promoted zazen (座禅, sitting meditation) as a direct path to enlightenment (悟り), challenging the elaborate ritualistic practices prevalent in other Buddhist schools at the time. His teachings emphasised personal experience of insight as the core of spiritual awakening, a principle that resonated deeply in the Japanese spiritual context. His seminal work, "Kōzen Gokokuron" (興禅護国論, Promoting Zen for the Protection of the Country), argued that Zen Buddhism was not only a path to personal enlightenment but also a means to foster national prosperity and moral integrity. In this text, Eisai posited that the mental discipline and moral teachings of Zen could strengthen societal virtues, making a compelling case for the state’s endorsement of Zen Buddhism. Influence on Martial Arts and Samurai Culture While Eisai’s primary legacy is religious and cultural, his impact on the martial disciplines of Japan, particularly among the samurai (侍), was also significant. The principles of Zen Buddhism seamlessly integrated into the Bushido (武士道, the way of the warrior) ethos, profoundly influencing samurai culture. Bushido, the code of conduct for samurai, emphasised virtues such as loyalty, honour, and self-discipline. Zen Buddhism contributed significantly to the evolution of Bushido by instilling a profound sense of mental focus, tranquillity, and inner strength. The practice of zazen encouraged samurai to cultivate a calm and focused mind, essential for martial prowess and effective decision-making in the heat of battle. The Zen concept of "mushin" (無心), or "no mind," which involves a state of mental clarity free from distraction and fear, became integral to samurai training. This state of mind allowed samurai to act intuitively and without hesitation, a crucial advantage in combat. Furthermore, the Zen teaching of impermanence (無常, mujō) helped samurai accept the transient nature of life and death, fostering a fearless and resolute attitude. This acceptance of mortality underpinned the samurai's readiness to sacrifice their lives for their lord or cause, embodying the ultimate expression of loyalty and honour. Addressing Trauma and PTSD The introduction of Zen Buddhism during the turbulent Kamakura period (鎌倉時代), following the Heian period (平安時代), also reflects an attempt to address the psychological impacts of continuous warfare, including what we would now recognise as PTSD. The era was marked by conflict and the rise of the samurai class, leading to widespread trauma among warriors and civilians alike. Zen practices, particularly zazen, offered a form of mental training that promoted emotional resilience and inner peace. The emphasis on mindfulness and present moment awareness provided a therapeutic framework for those suffering from the psychological scars of battle. By cultivating a state of "no mind," samurai could manage stress and maintain composure under extreme pressure, mitigating the effects of trauma and enhancing their overall mental health. Eisai’s advocacy for Zen as a means of enhancing both spiritual and physical discipline resonated deeply with the samurai class. His teachings provided a philosophical foundation that supported the development of martial skills and the ethical framework of Bushido. The integration of Zen meditation and mindfulness into daily practice helped samurai develop a balanced and centred approach to life, promoting not only martial excellence but also personal and moral integrity. Lasting Impact and Legacy Eisai's teachings laid the groundwork for what would become a distinctly Japanese form of Zen, later diversified through other schools such as the Sōtō (曹洞) school founded by Dōgen (道元). His approach to Zen, marked by a pragmatic emphasis on meditation and mindful action, continues to influence various facets of Japanese life, from arts and culture to business and daily conduct. Revered as the father of Japanese Zen, particularly the Rinzai tradition, Eisai’s contributions have left an indelible mark on Japan’s religious and cultural fabric. His legacy, characterised by a blend of rigorous spiritual practice and cultural exchange, resonates through centuries, symbolising the profound spiritual dialogue between Chinese and Japanese traditions. Having lived on three continents, I find human relationships fascinating. Additionally, my extensive exposure to various forms of human conflict has led me to contemplate an alternative perspective: human intimacy. By intimacy, I do not refer to the common pejorative association with sexual intercourse, but rather to the closeness that can form between people. Raised in a 'western', Catholic tradition, with influences from a distinct Irish perspective on such issues, my journey across the globe has provided different insights into the 'being' created when men and women connect. For the purposes of this discussion, I draw upon the Chinese (and by extension Japanese) tradition, which remains relatively unknown outside its sphere. Indeed, what is known often misses the mark, presenting an overly physical and body-centric view of human intimacy, whereas the tradition found within Japan is far more complex, varied, and, dare I say, non-Western. In the context of Chinese Five Element Theory, the physical union of male and female energies through intercourse, along with its generative and healing powers, plays a crucial role in maintaining balance and harmony in life. However, the modern world presents significant challenges to these traditional values and practices, which can disrupt the natural harmony of Yin and Yang. 1. Transactional Relationships: In the modern world, relationships often become transactional, where interactions are based on self-interest rather than mutual support and balance. This approach can disrupt the natural harmony of Yin and Yang, leading to dissatisfaction and imbalance. 2. Consumerist Metaframes: The consumerist mindset, which prioritises material gain and instant gratification, undermines the deeper, more meaningful connections that the Five Element Theory advocates. This mindset can lead to superficial relationships and a neglect of the spiritual and emotional aspects of life. 3. Widespread Access to Pornography: The widespread access to pornography promotes unrealistic and often harmful views of sex and intimacy. It reduces the sacred act of physical union to mere physical gratification, stripping it of its generative and healing powers. This can lead to distorted perceptions of sexuality, impairing the ability to form genuine, balanced relationships. Five Element Theory and Physical Union 1. The Five Elements and the Body: The Five Elements (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water) correspond to various organs and systems in the body, representing the dynamic balance required for health. Similarly, the physical bodies of males and females embody Yin and Yang energies, whose union can bring about profound healing and generative power. 2. Yin and Yang in Physical Union: Yin (female) and Yang (male) energies come together in a complementary manner during intercourse. This union symbolises the fundamental cosmic principles of receptivity and activity, nurturing and creation, essential for maintaining the harmony of the elements within the body. Generative and Healing Powers of Intercourse 1. Generative Power: The physical act of intercourse between male and female is inherently generative. It not only creates new life but also symbolises the creation of energy and vitality. This generative process is essential for the continuation of life and the renewal of energy, aligning with the creation cycle (sheng) of the Five Elements. 2. Healing Power: Intercourse is seen as a healing act in Chinese tradition. The exchange of energies between partners can help balance the Yin and Yang within the body, promoting physical, emotional, and spiritual healing. This balance can lead to improved health, enhanced vitality, and a greater sense of well-being. Living a Fulfilling and Balanced Life 1. Holistic Health: The balanced union of Yin and Yang through physical intimacy contributes to holistic health. It supports the harmonious functioning of the Five Elements within the body, ensuring physical health, emotional stability, and spiritual fulfilment. 2. Personal Growth: The ongoing effort to balance Yin and Yang within oneself and through relationships leads to personal growth. It encourages the development of qualities such as strength, compassion, decisiveness, and flexibility, fostering a well-rounded and harmonious personality. Contribution to the Social Fabric 1. Harmonious Relationships: Individuals who achieve a balance of Yin and Yang through physical union are more likely to foster harmonious relationships. Their interactions are characterised by empathy, understanding, and mutual respect, which contribute to the creation of a supportive and nurturing community. 2. Social Harmony: The generative and healing powers of balanced relationships extend to the wider community. Just as the Five Elements work together to maintain balance in nature, balanced individuals contribute to social harmony through their positive interactions and cooperative efforts. Practical Steps for Ongoing Balance 1. Daily Practices: Engaging in practices that promote the balance of Yin and Yang, such as Tai Chi, Qigong, and mindful breathing, helps maintain inner harmony. These practices enhance self-awareness and ensure the smooth flow of Qi (life force) in the body. 2. Balanced Lifestyle: Adopting a balanced lifestyle that considers the influence of the Five Elements in daily life, such as balanced nutrition, appropriate exercise, and proper rest, supports overall well-being. 3. Conscious Intimacy: Cultivating conscious intimacy with a partner involves open communication, mutual respect, and a shared commitment to balancing Yin and Yang. This conscious approach to physical union enhances its generative and healing powers. 4. Community Involvement: Participating in community activities that promote balance and harmony can reinforce these principles. This could include group exercises, communal meals, and cultural events that honour the interdependence of all members. Generative Thoughts In the context of Chinese Five Element Theory, the physical union of male and female energies through intercourse, along with its generative and healing powers, is essential for maintaining balance and harmony in life. However, modern challenges such as transactional relationships, consumerist metaframes, and widespread access to pornography are at odds with these traditional values. Overcoming these challenges requires a conscious effort to cultivate balance and harmony within oneself and in relationships, contributing positively to the social fabric. By fostering harmonious relationships and promoting social harmony, individuals enhance the well-being of their communities, much like the interdependent elements in nature. Postscript: It is essential to note that intimacy and its generative power can only be effective when given freely and both individuals agree to share themselves. The so-called 'passion' arises from the mutual release of energies between the two individuals. Therefore, this is the antithesis of violence, where one imposes their will upon another. Sadly, too often people within the martial arts confuse these energies with devastating and detrimental effects. |
James M. HatchInternational Educator who happens to be passionate about Chito Ryu Karate. Born in Ireland, educated in Canada, matured in Japan Archives
May 2024
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